Y–Z IN THE LABOUR MARKET: EMPLOYEE PERCEPTIONS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES (HUNGARY–PAKISTAN)

. Research on generations examine and analyse the similarities and differences between various age groups, and their opportunities for cooperation in the labour market, from various perspectives. According to the research, the behaviour and preparedness of each generation are different, the coordination and proper management of which poses challenges for all organisations. This is especially true when staff from national cultures with very distant values work together. The recognition of this problem was the pretext to the present research. The aim of the research is to examine the perception of the under 30 age group socialised and employed in two largely different cultures (Hungarian–Pakistani). Contrary to our assumption, the results of the quantitative research based on an online questionnaire confirm that the respondents do not perceive differently the behaviour, attitudes, expectations regarding work, workplace and employers of Pakistani and Hungarian young people at work. Employers’ perceptions of this age group play a significant role in choosing the tools that af-fect their retention in the workplace. In this respect, the employees of the studied cultures find similar solutions expedient.


Introduction
The results of more and more research are available in international literature about the characteristics of the two youngest (Y and Z) generations, their behaviour, values and future plans. Some research no longer only try to identify and/or generalise these characteristics, but focus on what problems their "otherness", different values or worldviews can cause at the workplace. These characteristics determine their integration into the collective, the relationship between employer and employee, the cooperation with colleagues and the commitment to the workplace. It is a general opinion that today's young people (i.e. the representatives of Y and Z generations) frequently change, do not want to be committed, cannot be motivated, and find it difficult to fit in.
The research aimed to obtain evidence of the authenticity of the image of young people -with the help of their co-workers, and to get a picture of how, according to the experience and opinion of elder generations, they can be motivated, how to make them committed as members of an organisation. In order to refute (or confirm) The main research question is to what extent the stereotypes are true and correct if we form opinions about young employees of different cultures. Our assumption is that representatives of the youngest generation have different behavioural characteristics and values due to their belonging to different national cultures, and their integration, commitment and motivation at the workplace require different solutions and tools. To conduct the research, a quantitative survey was launched with the participation of Hungarian and Pakistani respondents (employees) using an online questionnaire. Further chapters of the study provide an overview of the literature on the studied generations, and then the results of the quantitative survey are presented. The study ends with a discussion following the conclusions.

Characteristics of generations Y and Z
In the world of work, Generation Y appears as "consumer", meaning they wish to experience work (Gursoy et al., 2013). It is a matter of prestige to work for a reputable organisation, to do valuable work. Because Generation Y already faced technological advancements in their childhood, their job search habits are also different from previous generations. They prefer the opportunities provided by the online space such as social networking sites, forums, browsing company websites, etc.
According to a research by Smola and Sutton (2002), members of Generation Y agree the most with the statement that "I would quit my job if I inherited a lot of money", and the least with "everyone has a duty to work even if it would not otherwise by necessary". Twenge et al. (2010) also came to the same conclusion in her research. Carrier building play a much smaller role in their lives than in other generations, work and private life harmonisation is utmost important. Twenge and Kasser (2013) emphasise that this does not contradict the fact that material assets also play a dominant role for Generation Y-ers. In addition, in a previous research, Twenge and Kasser (2013) draw attention to the phenomenon of narcissism experienced at the given generation, which shows a significant growth. According to the researcher, the so-called "I deserve it, I do not have to anything for it" mindset also explains that they want money, but with less work.
Special features of generation Z according to Tapscott (2009): freedom, customisability, cooperation, detailedness, integration, innovation, speed, cheerfulness. Their goal is carrier building, continuous development, gaining experience, and standing out in the labour market. Another special feature is the frequent change. Their name also comes from this: "zappers" = switchers, leading a faster life than previous generations. If they do not like something, they are ready to switch at any time. They are not characterised by commitment, they take advantage of new opportunities and prefer challenges. Generation Z is thus an innovative and fast generation, wishing to learn and develop, and, as a result, they can be compelled to reach the company's goals primarily through internal motivating factors (Aggarwal et al., 2020).
In addition to generational characteristics, in line with the aim of the research, a review of cultural characteristics is necessary to get a realistic picture and to create a basis for comparison, in relation to the workplace characteristics of the studied generations.

Characteristics of the studied cultures
Several cultural models are known in the literature. One of the most well-known of them is Hofstede's (1991) model. Based on this, the characteristics of the two studied nations are shown in Figure 1.
The most striking difference can be seen in the individualism (dominance, helpfulness and cooperation in individual and team work) and indulgence (job change, carrier building, progress, internal motivation) characteristics, but power distance (distance keeping between manager and subordinate) and masculinity (managerial behaviour, position access) are also different values. This shows that differences arising from religion and social values are key factors determining the values and behaviour of young people in their daily life and in the workplace.

Hungarian culture
Hungary is country in Central and Eastern Europe: its history, traditions and values are based on the European culture, in harmony with the values of the surrounding countries. The official language is Hungarian. In terms of religion, Christian values are dominant. Several characteristics of young Hungarian people related to the present research will be presented on the basis of the results of a recent representative survey.
Young people rely primarily on online sources to obtain information. Despite the amount of time spent in the online space they do not feel like they have less personal contacts with their friends and acquaintances. Most of them think that getting a degree today is a good investment, and believe that those with higher education are better valued, a diploma can lay the foundation for their future (Bencsik et al., 2016). Most of them are consciously preparing for the future, their plans do no not include starting their own businesses. When working, it is utmost important to get a high wage in exchange for their time (Czeglédi & Juhasz, 2015). Whenever possible, they would like to do important work for the society, but do not wish to place work at the centre of their lives, it is important to have enough leisure time besides work/learning. Most of them think that employees are mostly or completely vulnerable to their employers. Workplace security is more important to them than income, and it is possible to earn a lot of money fairly. If they do not find a work that matches their ideas, they easily leave the country and seek prosperity abroad (typically in Western Europe).
They like to be everywhere, spinning. They are characterised by a fairly high level of self-confidence; they think that what they really want is always received, achieved, obtained (Reissova et al., 2019).

Pakistani culture
Culture in Pakistan is influenced by Arabic, Indian, Central Asian and European culture. A very diverse mix of 73 regional and locally recognised languages is spoken. Urdu is the national language, but English is used as an official language as well. Young people prefer to live in a joint family where everybody shares the burden and takes care of each other. Islam is the dominant religion, around 96% of the population is Muslim. There is freedom of speech and practice for them. People are hospitable, and it is part of their cultural and religious responsibility. South Asia accumulates 30% of the world's youth. Young people mostly follow the Islamic culture and value system. Due to higher education in the past two decades, the youth emerged as a hardworking and vibrant entity.
Also, in terms of traditional and cultural values, there is similarity between Generation Y and other generations (Kashif & Rehman, 2014). The majority of parents prefer to stay intact with religious and cultural values. They provide education and healthy life for their children with their values and norms. In personal and professional matters, most of the time they prefer to follow the guidelines from their elders. Generation Y and Z tend to be more hardworking. They are adept in use of digital technologies and improving their performance (Cotet et al., 2020). Rahman and Azhar (2011) added a remarkable economic scenario when they wanted to enjoy economic wellbeing. It led them to excel in their profession and personal life. Generation Y and Z put newer ones to work. Looking from the perspective of their competitiveness, Snieska et al. (2020) found that the private sector is more focussed on harnessing the competitiveness of generation Y practitioners.
Based on the presented generational and cultural characteristics, according to the results of Hofstede's research, in terms of cooperation, team work and collective attitudes, young people in Hungary lag behind the Pakistani youth where the cohesive force of the community, the family, and respect for managers and elders are more important. At the same time, managerial behaviour, access to positions, job change, carrier building, progress and internal motivation are much more dominant in the Hungarian case. The most striking differences between the two examined nations are in the areas of preference of religious and social values, respect for family relationships, visions for the future, entrepreneurship and commitment. The respondents' perceptions of generations can be impacted by cultural characteristics (values of a family e.g. to follow the guidelines from elders, values of society, e.g. commitment, values of religion, e.g. ethical rules, (Klopotan et al., 2020) etc. With this knowledge, the research was planned and conducted, and will be presented in the next chapter.

Methodology
The authors conducted more research between 2015 and 2020 (Bencsik et al., 2016) to learn how different generations perceive each other: who can work well with which generation in the workplace, and how respondents see HR tasks in managing generations. As a first step of the present research, the research concept was formulated, with the aim of analysing and clarifying the terms. Two hypotheses were formulated in the study, and the questionnaire was based on them. The hypotheses were formulated based on the literature and the results of the authors' previous research, as well as their own experiences (Bencsik et al., 2016;Hofstede, 1991). Sampling was performed by random selection, and an online interface was used to submit the questionnaires. Following the statistical analysis of responses, the acceptance or rejection of the validity of the hypotheses was checked. The authors also tested the research results in the light of former research on the topic, and then possible further directions were outlined. The following hypotheses have been analysed in the study.

Hypothesis 1.
Employees living in Hungarian and Pakistani culture have different perception of the under-30 age group, and are typically critical of these young people.

Hypothesis 2.
Respondent opinion about employed young people also determines what tools are considered adequate to their retention in the workplace.
The research was based on a self-designed questionnaire; the closed questions were based on nominal and metric variables. During the compilation of the questionnaire, the examination of the hypotheses came to the fore as a goal. During the formulation of the questions, due to the specific focus of the topic, the authors' thinking was not influenced by the series of questions used by former, similar questionnaire surveys. As mentioned above, previous studies in the literature were conducted in a different structure and with a different focus. The grouping of questions are summarised in Table 1. During the statistical analysis of the results of the questionnaire survey, frequency and mean analyses, ANOVA, correlation, factor analysis and cross-tabulation analysis were performed, with the help of SPSS 25 and SPSS AMOS programs.
A total of 525 responses were given to the questionnaires from 421 Hungarian and 104 Pakistani respondents. The creative research systems calculator (Survey system, 2021) was used by the authors to check the sample size. The confidence level was 95% for the Hungarian sample and the confidence interval (the margin of error) was 5. The confidence level was 95% for the Pakistani sample and the confidence interval was 10.

Results
To present the research results, the sample specification is shown in Table 2: The authors listed a number of characteristics that respondents had to place on a 5-point Likert-scale to determine how representative they are of young people under 30 years of age. Number one meant not representative at all, while five meant very representative.
The means and standard deviations calculated for the characteristics by country are shown in Table 3.  According to the whole sample, it is not representative of this age group to be restrained, committed, have no value systems, not to work hard or to be disrespectful. They are most seen to overconfident, be creative, have a strong career desire, communicate skilfully, are full of ideas and are very ambitious. Hungarian respondents saw those under the age of 30 as the least restrained, committed, or that they would give everything to work. They are mostly characterised by career desire, overconfidence and creativity. According to Pakistani respondents, moderation, commitment or having a stable value system are not representative of them at all. Respondent opinions from the two countries are congruent, so a correlation study was conducted to analyse the three most representative characteristics (strong career desire, overconfidence, creativity) in order to determine how they relate to the other examined characteristics.
Hungarian respondents believed that young people with string career desire are, among other things, creative, motivated, ambitious, full of ideas, but less moderate. Those with overconfidence are believed to be slightly collaborative, not committed, not really hard-working, not moderate and rather impolite. They can also be impertinent, while expecting help, but they are less helpful. Young people with career desire were viewed negatively.
Young people whose creativity is strong, are motivated, committed, ambitious, and know what career they want, they are persistent and good problem-solvers. True, they can be less moderate. Creative young people were viewed relatively positively.
According to Pakistani respondents, those with overconfidence are creative, they know what they want out of life, but perhaps that makes them selfish, impertinent, and expect help. At the same time, young people with strong career desire are ambitious and overconfident, full of ideas and can be hardworking, though they do not seek advice from elders. Young people who are considered creative are motivated, ambitious, self-confident, persistent and full of ideas, yet they seek advice from elders. All in all, the opinions of respondents from the two countries show a relatively positive attitude towards creative young people, Pakistanis have a more lenient view of those with strong career desire, and Hungarians viewed those with overconfidence negatively.
For further analyses, the authors condensed the given variables into factors. The factor analysis showed a successful fit, with a KMO statistic of 0.785, which is above the generally accepted 0.7, so there is adequate consistency between the components. The Bartlett's test showed a significant correlation between the variables (χ 2 (171) = 2605.317, p < 0.001), i.e. the variables are suitable for factor analysis. The total variance explained by the factors was 57.474%. Five factors were created (Table 4), which are: -"These young people today" (this typically included the values that are often said about young people based on negative subjective perceptions) -"Positive criticism" (appreciative characteristics) -"Social values" (values that primarily serve community interests) -"Motivation" (progress) -"Modesty" (moderateness, modesty) During the factor analysis, 6 variables (ambitious, good problem-solvers, communicate skilfully, hardworking, like team work) were not included among components either due to low explanation or unclear factor classification. All but one of the Cronbach's alpha values were acceptable, only in the fourth factor's (Motivation) case was it lower than the generally accepted 0.7, so the results for this factor should be treated with some caution. The authors worked further on with these factors.
The authors compared whether there was a discrepancy and, if so, based on which factors between the Hungarian and the Pakistani subsamples, which was verified by an independent samples t-test. Significant discrepancy was found only in the case of modesty, which was higher than that of the Pakistanis' and lower than that of the Hungarians' . i.e. Hungarian respondents rated young people less modest than Pakistanis (t-test: t:-1.995 df:138.548 szign.:.048 p < .05).
Research questions also focussed on how, according to respondents, young people can be influenced to stay in the workplace. Respondents were asked to comment on how useful various tools could be in a given situation. Respondents had to judge this on a five-point Likert scale, with one meaning not at all and five meaning absolutely yes.
The results obtained during the analysis are summarised in Table 5.
According to the respondents, the young age group can be made to stay in the workplace with money and career opportunities, while good work atmosphere and nonfinancial incentives are the least effective. Respondents in the two countries had nearly similar views. It was examined about which tools Hungarian and Pakistani opinions differ significantly, but there was no such variable.
The authors then examined the relationship between established factors and retention tools in the workplace in the overall sample as well as in subsamples based on the two nations. Since the sample size exceeded 100 and the End of Table 3  linearity of the variables included in the examination could also be assumed, the Pearson linear correlation coefficient was applied to examine the relationship between them. Unsurprisingly, a negative correlation can be detected in the overall sample between the "These young people today" and challenging work factors, while a positive relationship can be verified with nothing, as a retention tool. The result is clear, as anyone who sees young people this way does not feel that challenging work can retain them in the workplace.
"Positive criticism" shows a positive correlation with career opportunity, challenging work, position and serious management. It is in negative correlation with the fact that young people cannot be retained by anything.
"Social values" show a negative correlation with money, and with nothing as a retention tool, but a positive correlation with good work atmosphere and serious manager personality.
"Motivation" is negatively related to motivation with nothing, however, it shows a significant positive correlation with money, challenging work and good work atmosphere. It must be highlighted that their moderate closeness is related to career opportunity and position as retention tools.
The "Modesty" factor is in positive correlation with challenging work, but in negative correlation with using money for retention.
These findings are representative not only of the overall sample but also of the two subsamples so there is no difference between the two samples in this respect. It can only be detected that almost all correlation coefficients have a higher absolute value in the Pakistani sample than in the Hungarian one, that is, the above tendencies appear more strongly among the Pakistanis than the Hungarians.
The Structural Equation Model (SEM) was developed for the overall sample, based on conclusions drawn from these lessons. The Structural Equation Model (SEM) was developed for the overall sample, based on conclusions drawn from these lessons. This technique is a combination of factor and multiple regression analysis. The authors tested the mental relationships in the SEM model they created ( Figure 2). SEM (Structural Equation Modelling) allows of the relationship between one or more exogenous (independent) variables and one or more endogenous (dependent) variables. Exogenous variables can have a direct or indirect impact on endogenous variables.
Each of the factors created in the SEM model is related to two, three, or even four retention tools.
"These young people today" has a positive effect in three factors: serious management (0.143), position (0.116) and nothing (0.294). These young people can be hardest to retain. "Positive criticism" also affects three factors: career opportunity (0.197), serious management (0.158) and challenging work (0.237). Of these, challenging work can be the best retaining tool.
The existence of "Social characteristics" affects four factors: it is negative correlation with nothing (-0.148) and money (-0.139); however, it has a positive impact on good work atmosphere (0.128) and serious management (0.142). So whoever has social characteristics can rather be retained by good work atmosphere and serious management; but with money or by doing nothing for them, probably not. According to the model, motivated young people can be influenced by serious management (0.195), career opportunity (0.148) and position (0.352), but if they are not motivated (-0.246), it has a negative effect on them. As can be seen, position has the strongest impact on motivated young people. For those with modest characteristics, money has a negative impact (-0.156), but challenging work has a positive one (0.161). In addition, there is a demonstrable correlation between retention tools as well. Motivation by money is positively influenced by career opportunity (0.423) and position (0.131), but challenging work (-0.130) has a negative impact. Carrier opportunities are weakened by, for example, serious management (-0.087), while strengthened by position (0.282) and challenging work (0.130). Influencing by position is weakened by the lack of motivational factors (-0.187), and strengthened by good work atmosphere (0.193) and serious management (0.143). Challenging work is strengthened by position (0.273) and good work atmosphere (0.205).

Conclusions
In conclusion, it can be stated that Hungarian and Pakistani respondents do not see young people significantly different and have similar views regarding the tools necessary to retain them in the workplace.
The majority of respondents have a positive view of this age group. In their opinion, a retention force is to be found in career opportunities, serious management and challenging work, while socially sensitive young people can be influenced primarily by good work atmosphere. According to those with a negative criticism, they can hardly be motivated, retained, yet if so -with a similar opinion -by position and/or serious management. Young people who are already motivated are stimulated by career opportunity, but motivation by nothing is destructive. Challenging work has a positive impact on the modest, but money has the opposite effect. Based on the above, the first hypothesis, namely, "Employees living in Hungarian and Pakistani culture have different perception of the under-30 age group, and are typically critical of these young people" is rejected now.
The second hypothesis, "Respondent opinion about employed young people also determines what tools are considered adequate to their retention in the workplace" is considered accepted. Based on the results of the hypotheses, the answer to the main research question can be given as follows: the opinion generally formed in the literature about the young generation -regardless of the marked cultural differences -is true for the young people of both nations in the case of the studied samples. At the same time, respondent opinions have an impact on what they think about the solutions and tools of their integration, commitment and motivation at the workplace.

Discussion
Previous research (Bencsik et al., 2016) relatively converge regarding young people's lifestyle, attitudes, needs, behaviour and attitude towards work. According to the latest Hungarian research (Groupama Biztosito, 2019) about a third of respondent companies indicated that they have difficulties finding and engaging the right workforce. This result justifies the viability of our research, as one of the hypotheses sought the answer to this very issue. According to the respondents in the survey, overconfidence, creativity, and career desire are typical of them, at the same time, they are less respectful or committed, and do not show much activity in their work. The activities where they perform significantly better -compared to their elder workmates -are primarily the field of IT, tasks requiring creativity, and innovative solutions. The results of present research confirm the above mentioned research results.
Are the general stereotypes really true? Young people's opinion about themselves is that the most important element of job advertisements to them is salary as this provides them with the desired independence and material well-being (Gnanakumar, 2019;Rodriguez et al., 2019). The most common reason for their job change is the other places offer higher wages, more attractive benefits, but also that they do not have the opportunity to progress and develop: this was mentioned by 42 percent of Generation Z, and 39 percent of Generation Y. The list of exact tasks and the place of work are important to them. Young people expect their immediate leader to help their development with feedback and to maintain their motivation. This does not necessarily mean material motivation, but the understanding of the meaning of their work and perceiving their work as an experience. They largely need their workplace to give them an identity so the establishment of an employer brand plays an important role in their retention. These results rate young people with similar characteristics our own research (Reissova et al., 2019).
The problem that shapes further research directions is that some employers are not prepared for the expectations of young people. More than two thirds of the respondent companies in the above mentioned research have no motivational tools, and another 23 percent of them did not respond to this question, that is, presumably, they do not pay attention to this. Almost half of the businesses do not offer any kind of alternative work-time solutions for young people, although flexibility is one of the frequently mentioned expectations in both studies (Chillakuri, 2020;Tang, 2019).
The focus of the present research was on the perception of young people in the workplace depending on different cultures. We presumed that different cultures have different views of the under-30 age group as employees as cultural differences greatly influence behavioural characteristics and attitudes based on fundamental values, job expectations, integration and distance from the leader.
The generation theories demonstrated in the chapter on literature suggest that each generation is connected by shared experiences. Generation Z can be considered the first global generation as they watch the same series, wear the same brand in almost all over the world. That is why it is important that wherever they go, they should receive similar values, preferably ones that get them excited. The first 10 years are decisive for each generation. It is also true for the younger representatives of Generation Y, although the elder representatives had an offline life, "a real childhood". This can no longer be said about the younger Y and Z generations. They grew up in an accelerated, stimulus-saturated work, and this sort of immediacy and networking determines their perceptions and values. Presumably, this also contributes to the fact that young people from two very different cultures behave in very similar ways and therefore their perceptions are similar in different cultures of the world. This was confirmed by the research presented above. The research represents a new perspective and results because we have not found previous research that examined the behaviour of young people at the workplace from a cultural perspective, comparing different national cultures.

Limitation of research and recommendation
The researchers faced limitations of sampling (the collection of Pakistani sample was a particular problem). The limited number of publications about the effect of Pakistani culture caused difficulty.
It is advisable to increase the sample number. Confirming the impact of the differences of national cultures upon workplace behaviour also requires the study of further cultures. In further research, it is recommended to ask the employer side as well about their experiences with young people, as well as the representatives of the generation concerned, and compare the results.